Post by lurker4now on Jun 15, 2005 6:02:54 GMT -5
Europe in Muslim Medieval Sources. The case of Mas‘udi
Introduction
The earliest complex Muslim literary descriptions of Western Europe appeared around the IX century. They derived largely from Greek classical works, from which Muslim scholars acquired the first idea of the geographical configuration of Europe. The most renowned classical author was certainly Tholomeus, whose works had probably already been translated in Arabic. Starting from the Greek classics, soon Muslim scholars started to produce their own geographical works. Following the example of the Greeks, initially the first Muslim authors divided the world in four parts: Europe (called Urufa by the geographer Ibn Khurradabeh), Libia, Ethiopia and Scizia. This subdivision did not last. For instance, it does not appear in the work of Mas‘udi, the most renowned Muslim author of historiographical-geographical works of his time, where to Greek geographical notions the author added new elements which reflected the point of view of the Muslim civilization of the late Abbasid caliphate.
Mas‘udi, simplified form of Abu al-Hasan Aliibn al-Husain ibn Ali ibn Abd Allah al- Mas‘udi, was born in Baghdad around 896, during the caliphate of Mu‘tadid, and died in Egypt around 956. At the beginning of one of his works, the Muruj al-dhahab, Mas‘udi stated that a man who remains at home and gets information only from others cannot claim the same authority of someone who has travelled and seen things with his own eyes. Evidently, Mas‘udi referred to himself, since he spent part of his life in long travels in Persia, India, Yemen, Siria, Egypt and the Caspian Sea, where he collected abundant material for his works. It is unknown how he could afford these travels, but he could have taken part in trade. In fact, he was not apparently linked with the court. His public was not composed only of scholars, but also of the relatively numerous audience of the cultured urban readers. The existence of this kind of public in Muslim cities in the IX and X century was in part due to the availability and cheapness of books, thanks to the introduction of paper after the capture of Chinese producers around the mid VIII century. The characteristics of his public influenced the composition Mas‘udi’s works, which combined chronicles, biographies and geographical descriptions, and included digressions, anecdotes, games and poetry, which described the habits, characteristics and customs of the different peoples. These were used to capture and keep the attention and the interest of a public, which was more volatile than one composed of scholars.
The interest of Mas‘udi for the non-Islamic world differentiates him from the majority of the Muslim authors of his period. In fact, he included in his works descriptions of China, India and Europe. Differently from India, Mas‘udi never visited China or Europe. For Europe he had to rely on the descriptions of Muslim and Christian merchants met during his travels. Mas‘udi utilised also written sources, such as a list of Frankish kings written by the bishop Godmar of Gerona.
Mas‘udi produced more than thirty-four works, but only two of them survived. One is entitled Muruj al-dhahab, (Meadows of Gold), and the second, a later work, is the Kitab al-a’laq al-nafisa (The book of Notification). Both of them include information about Europe.
English Translation
From Kitab al-a’laq al-nafisa,(The Book of Notification), French translation by Carra de Vaux, Macoudi, le livre de l’avertissement et de la révision (Paris, 1897), pp. 38-39:
God has divided the Earth in two parts, the East and the West. The East is taiman (the land at the right) which is the south, have the same essence, because the heat is dominant in both of them; the western part and the djerbi, that is the North, similarly have the same essence, because they are dominated by the cold, which is very intense because of the distance from the sun typical of the northern region …….. For what concerns the peoples of the northern quadrant, they are those for whom the sun is distant from the zenith, as they penetrate in the North, as the Slavs, the Franks and those nations next to them. The power of the sun is weak among them, because of the distance. Cold and humidity prevail in their regions, and snow and frost are everlasting. Their bodies are big, their character rude, their manners severe and their intelligence slow and their tongues heavy. Their colour is so excessively white that they look blue: their skin is thin and their flesh thick; their eyes, too, are blue, as their colour; their hair are thin and reddish because of the cold e of the lack of heat. Their religious beliefs lack of consistence, because of the cold and of the lack of heat.…….The more they are in the north, the more they are stupid, big and beast like. These features grow in them, the more they are in the north. Those who live more than sixty miles beyond this latitude are Gog and Magog. They are in the sixth climate and are considered beasts.
Extract from Murūj al-dhahab, (Meadows of Gold), ed. and French transl. by F. Barbier de Meynard and Pavet du Courteille (Paris, 1861-77), pp. 61-78.
The Slavs, their lands, their kings and their migrations:
The Slavs descended from Mar, son of Japheth, son of Noah, and it is from him that all the peoples of that same race originated, and it is the most general opinion sustained by those who have dedicated their intelligence to the study of this topic. Their settlements are in the north, from which they extended in the west. The Slavs are divided in numerous principal branches, which wage war with each other. Among their kings, some are Christians, others have neither books nor laws, live in paganism and ignore any religious code. Among the different families or races in which these peoples are subdivided, one is the one where the kings of old come from. Their kings had the title of Madjek, and they were known as Walinana. All the Slavs recognise their superiority, because was among them the supreme chief, of whom all the other chiefs were vassals. Among the Slavs of second importance, it is important to cite the Astabraneh, whose king in our day is called Saklaih, and the Doulaneh, was king is called Wandjalaf. Then come the Namdjin, whose king is called Azaneh: among the Slavs they are the most courageous warriors and the best horse riders; then the Menabin, whose king is called Zembier; then the Sirtin, a tribe which would be too long to describe and whose qualities would need a too detailed description; they don’t recognise the sovereignty of any other people. It is necessary to mention the Sàssin, the Djerwanik, the Khachanin, and the Berandjabin. The names of some of their kings, whom we have cited, are the common titles of the princes of the same race. Among the Sirtin, of which we are talking, there is the habit of burning the dead king or chief. They throw in the fire his horses too. The habits of these peoples are similar to those of the Indians. …….The first among the kings of the Slavs is that of the Dir, who has the control of big cities and many lands. Muslim merchants travel to his capital with all kinds of goods. After him comes the king of the Avandj, who owns well cultivated provinces, numerous troops and ample military resources. He is at war with the Greeks, the Franks, the Lombards and other barbarous peoples. The hostilities among them continue with alternating fortunes. Next to these kings, always in the country of the Slavs, there is that of the Turks, who are the most beautiful, numerous, warlike of all the Slavs. The Slavs are divided in numerous families and tribes, whose detailed description and classifications are not included in the plan of this work. We have included in the first place the king, whose sovereignty is recognised by all the other chiefs from old, that is Madjek, king of the Walinana, who are pure Slavs, from the most esteemed family, and own the prominence on all the other ramifications of the same race. Later these peoples were divided and the ancient organisation was destroyed. Then the different families became isolated groups, and they created their own kings, as we have said.….
The Franks and the Galicians:
The Franks, the Slavs, the Longbards, the Spaniards, Gog, Magog, the Turks, the Kazars, the Bulgars, the Alans, the Galicians, and others we have mentioned as living in the area of Capricorn, that is the north, are all descending from Japheth, son of Noah. …..The Franks are the most courageous among these peoples, those who defend themselves better, the most equipped, with the most extensive lands and with the most numerous cities, the better organised and the most submissive and obedient to their kings. It is necessary to say that the Galicians are even more audacious, more ferocious than the Franks, since one Galician can face numerous Franks. The Franks are all subject to one king and in this there is no dispute or faction among them. The name of their capital is Bariza, which is a big city. They have 150 cities, apart country towns and villages. Before the coming of Islam, the first countries occupied by the Franks were in the Mediterranean Sea, the island of Rhodes, which we have said is in front of Alexandria…..and Crete, which the Muslims have taken from the Franks..
The Franks had also Ifrikyah and Sicilia. We have already talked of these islands. …While I was in Fustat, in Egypt in the year 336, I happened to find a book written by Ormaz (Godmar), bishop of the city of Djerbedeh (Gerona), one of the cities once owned by the Franks……..I read in this work that the first king of the Franks was Kloudieh. He became Christian through his woman, Gortileh. After him was king his son Loderik, whose successor was his son Dakochert, who as well left his crown to his son Loderik. He was replaced by his brother Kortàn. After him came his son Karleh, then the son of this latter, Tébin, then Tébin’s son, Karleh, whose reign lasted twenty-six years. ….After him his sons waged war with each other and their quarrels came to the point that the Franks were destroying themselves. Loderik, son of Karleh became master of the empire and ruled it for twenty-eight years and six months. He was the one who advanced on Tortosa and besieged it. His successor was Karleh, son of Loderik, the same who sent gifts to Mohammed, son of Abd-er-Rahman…..After a reign of thirty-nine years and six months, he left the throne to his son Loderik, who kept it for six years. In this time, the count of the Franks, whose name was Naouceh, rebelled against him and acquired the sovereignty, which he exercised for eight years. It was he who bought from the Magjous (the Normans) the evacuation of his territory for seven years, at the price of six hundred pieces of gold, and six hundred of Silver, which the king of the Franks had to pay them. His successor was Karleh, who reigned four years. Then came another Charles who stayed on the throne thirty-one year and three months. His successor Loderik, son of Karleh is still reigning today.
Among the nations next to the Franks, the most powerful among those who dominate in Spain were the Galicians, to the point that the Franks are always at war with them. But the Galicians were the most warlike. The Franks and the Galicians are of Christian religion, and follow that melkite rite.
The Noukobard (the Longbards) and their kings:
We have already mentioned the Longbards descended from Japheth, son of Noah. Their territory extends in the direction of Magreb, and their settlements are in the north. They have many islands where many different peoples live, very warlike and difficult to submit. They have numerous cities and are under the authority of one king, whose name is Adenkebs (duke). The biggest city, their capital, is Yast (Benevento?). A big river crosses it and divides it in two principal quarters. This river is one of the most important rivers in the world and among the most interesting. Its name is Saibat: it is mentioned by numerous ancient authors who have dealt with this topic.
The Muslims who live in Spain and who are next to the Longbards have taken from them many cities, such as Bari, Tarniou (Taranto?), Chebrameh and other important places. But the Longbards reacted, attacking their invaders and taking back their conquests after long wars. At the moment the above-mentioned cities are controlled by the Longbards.
The Galicians, the Franks, the Slavs, the Longbards and other peoples we have mentioned live in territories next to each other. A great part of them are permanently in hostility against Spain…..whose capital is Cordoba…..The Muslims own in this lands many cities…..in many occasions they had to unite against those barbarous people who descended from, for example, the Galicians, the Borjan, the Franks and many others …
Questions
Which are the usual issues, in Mas‘udi’s description of European peoples?
What is common to all the peoples here described?
Why does he choose to talk only about Slavs, Galicians, Franks, and Longbards?
Bibliography
Ashtor, E., “Che cosa sapevano i geografi Arabi dell’Europa occidentale?”, Rivista Storica Italiana, 81, (1969), pp. 453-79.
Guidi, I., “L’Europa occidentale negli antichi geografi arabi”, Florilegium M. de Vogüe (1909), pp. 263-69.
Lewis, B., The Muslim discovery of Europe (Londra, 1982).
Miquel, A., La géographie humaine du monde musulman jusqu’au milieu du lle siècle, (Parigi, 1967-80), in particular, vol. 2, entitled Géographie arabe et répresentation du monde : la terre et l’étranger, chapters 6 e 7 on eastern and western Europe.
Introduction
The earliest complex Muslim literary descriptions of Western Europe appeared around the IX century. They derived largely from Greek classical works, from which Muslim scholars acquired the first idea of the geographical configuration of Europe. The most renowned classical author was certainly Tholomeus, whose works had probably already been translated in Arabic. Starting from the Greek classics, soon Muslim scholars started to produce their own geographical works. Following the example of the Greeks, initially the first Muslim authors divided the world in four parts: Europe (called Urufa by the geographer Ibn Khurradabeh), Libia, Ethiopia and Scizia. This subdivision did not last. For instance, it does not appear in the work of Mas‘udi, the most renowned Muslim author of historiographical-geographical works of his time, where to Greek geographical notions the author added new elements which reflected the point of view of the Muslim civilization of the late Abbasid caliphate.
Mas‘udi, simplified form of Abu al-Hasan Aliibn al-Husain ibn Ali ibn Abd Allah al- Mas‘udi, was born in Baghdad around 896, during the caliphate of Mu‘tadid, and died in Egypt around 956. At the beginning of one of his works, the Muruj al-dhahab, Mas‘udi stated that a man who remains at home and gets information only from others cannot claim the same authority of someone who has travelled and seen things with his own eyes. Evidently, Mas‘udi referred to himself, since he spent part of his life in long travels in Persia, India, Yemen, Siria, Egypt and the Caspian Sea, where he collected abundant material for his works. It is unknown how he could afford these travels, but he could have taken part in trade. In fact, he was not apparently linked with the court. His public was not composed only of scholars, but also of the relatively numerous audience of the cultured urban readers. The existence of this kind of public in Muslim cities in the IX and X century was in part due to the availability and cheapness of books, thanks to the introduction of paper after the capture of Chinese producers around the mid VIII century. The characteristics of his public influenced the composition Mas‘udi’s works, which combined chronicles, biographies and geographical descriptions, and included digressions, anecdotes, games and poetry, which described the habits, characteristics and customs of the different peoples. These were used to capture and keep the attention and the interest of a public, which was more volatile than one composed of scholars.
The interest of Mas‘udi for the non-Islamic world differentiates him from the majority of the Muslim authors of his period. In fact, he included in his works descriptions of China, India and Europe. Differently from India, Mas‘udi never visited China or Europe. For Europe he had to rely on the descriptions of Muslim and Christian merchants met during his travels. Mas‘udi utilised also written sources, such as a list of Frankish kings written by the bishop Godmar of Gerona.
Mas‘udi produced more than thirty-four works, but only two of them survived. One is entitled Muruj al-dhahab, (Meadows of Gold), and the second, a later work, is the Kitab al-a’laq al-nafisa (The book of Notification). Both of them include information about Europe.
English Translation
From Kitab al-a’laq al-nafisa,(The Book of Notification), French translation by Carra de Vaux, Macoudi, le livre de l’avertissement et de la révision (Paris, 1897), pp. 38-39:
God has divided the Earth in two parts, the East and the West. The East is taiman (the land at the right) which is the south, have the same essence, because the heat is dominant in both of them; the western part and the djerbi, that is the North, similarly have the same essence, because they are dominated by the cold, which is very intense because of the distance from the sun typical of the northern region …….. For what concerns the peoples of the northern quadrant, they are those for whom the sun is distant from the zenith, as they penetrate in the North, as the Slavs, the Franks and those nations next to them. The power of the sun is weak among them, because of the distance. Cold and humidity prevail in their regions, and snow and frost are everlasting. Their bodies are big, their character rude, their manners severe and their intelligence slow and their tongues heavy. Their colour is so excessively white that they look blue: their skin is thin and their flesh thick; their eyes, too, are blue, as their colour; their hair are thin and reddish because of the cold e of the lack of heat. Their religious beliefs lack of consistence, because of the cold and of the lack of heat.…….The more they are in the north, the more they are stupid, big and beast like. These features grow in them, the more they are in the north. Those who live more than sixty miles beyond this latitude are Gog and Magog. They are in the sixth climate and are considered beasts.
Extract from Murūj al-dhahab, (Meadows of Gold), ed. and French transl. by F. Barbier de Meynard and Pavet du Courteille (Paris, 1861-77), pp. 61-78.
The Slavs, their lands, their kings and their migrations:
The Slavs descended from Mar, son of Japheth, son of Noah, and it is from him that all the peoples of that same race originated, and it is the most general opinion sustained by those who have dedicated their intelligence to the study of this topic. Their settlements are in the north, from which they extended in the west. The Slavs are divided in numerous principal branches, which wage war with each other. Among their kings, some are Christians, others have neither books nor laws, live in paganism and ignore any religious code. Among the different families or races in which these peoples are subdivided, one is the one where the kings of old come from. Their kings had the title of Madjek, and they were known as Walinana. All the Slavs recognise their superiority, because was among them the supreme chief, of whom all the other chiefs were vassals. Among the Slavs of second importance, it is important to cite the Astabraneh, whose king in our day is called Saklaih, and the Doulaneh, was king is called Wandjalaf. Then come the Namdjin, whose king is called Azaneh: among the Slavs they are the most courageous warriors and the best horse riders; then the Menabin, whose king is called Zembier; then the Sirtin, a tribe which would be too long to describe and whose qualities would need a too detailed description; they don’t recognise the sovereignty of any other people. It is necessary to mention the Sàssin, the Djerwanik, the Khachanin, and the Berandjabin. The names of some of their kings, whom we have cited, are the common titles of the princes of the same race. Among the Sirtin, of which we are talking, there is the habit of burning the dead king or chief. They throw in the fire his horses too. The habits of these peoples are similar to those of the Indians. …….The first among the kings of the Slavs is that of the Dir, who has the control of big cities and many lands. Muslim merchants travel to his capital with all kinds of goods. After him comes the king of the Avandj, who owns well cultivated provinces, numerous troops and ample military resources. He is at war with the Greeks, the Franks, the Lombards and other barbarous peoples. The hostilities among them continue with alternating fortunes. Next to these kings, always in the country of the Slavs, there is that of the Turks, who are the most beautiful, numerous, warlike of all the Slavs. The Slavs are divided in numerous families and tribes, whose detailed description and classifications are not included in the plan of this work. We have included in the first place the king, whose sovereignty is recognised by all the other chiefs from old, that is Madjek, king of the Walinana, who are pure Slavs, from the most esteemed family, and own the prominence on all the other ramifications of the same race. Later these peoples were divided and the ancient organisation was destroyed. Then the different families became isolated groups, and they created their own kings, as we have said.….
The Franks and the Galicians:
The Franks, the Slavs, the Longbards, the Spaniards, Gog, Magog, the Turks, the Kazars, the Bulgars, the Alans, the Galicians, and others we have mentioned as living in the area of Capricorn, that is the north, are all descending from Japheth, son of Noah. …..The Franks are the most courageous among these peoples, those who defend themselves better, the most equipped, with the most extensive lands and with the most numerous cities, the better organised and the most submissive and obedient to their kings. It is necessary to say that the Galicians are even more audacious, more ferocious than the Franks, since one Galician can face numerous Franks. The Franks are all subject to one king and in this there is no dispute or faction among them. The name of their capital is Bariza, which is a big city. They have 150 cities, apart country towns and villages. Before the coming of Islam, the first countries occupied by the Franks were in the Mediterranean Sea, the island of Rhodes, which we have said is in front of Alexandria…..and Crete, which the Muslims have taken from the Franks..
The Franks had also Ifrikyah and Sicilia. We have already talked of these islands. …While I was in Fustat, in Egypt in the year 336, I happened to find a book written by Ormaz (Godmar), bishop of the city of Djerbedeh (Gerona), one of the cities once owned by the Franks……..I read in this work that the first king of the Franks was Kloudieh. He became Christian through his woman, Gortileh. After him was king his son Loderik, whose successor was his son Dakochert, who as well left his crown to his son Loderik. He was replaced by his brother Kortàn. After him came his son Karleh, then the son of this latter, Tébin, then Tébin’s son, Karleh, whose reign lasted twenty-six years. ….After him his sons waged war with each other and their quarrels came to the point that the Franks were destroying themselves. Loderik, son of Karleh became master of the empire and ruled it for twenty-eight years and six months. He was the one who advanced on Tortosa and besieged it. His successor was Karleh, son of Loderik, the same who sent gifts to Mohammed, son of Abd-er-Rahman…..After a reign of thirty-nine years and six months, he left the throne to his son Loderik, who kept it for six years. In this time, the count of the Franks, whose name was Naouceh, rebelled against him and acquired the sovereignty, which he exercised for eight years. It was he who bought from the Magjous (the Normans) the evacuation of his territory for seven years, at the price of six hundred pieces of gold, and six hundred of Silver, which the king of the Franks had to pay them. His successor was Karleh, who reigned four years. Then came another Charles who stayed on the throne thirty-one year and three months. His successor Loderik, son of Karleh is still reigning today.
Among the nations next to the Franks, the most powerful among those who dominate in Spain were the Galicians, to the point that the Franks are always at war with them. But the Galicians were the most warlike. The Franks and the Galicians are of Christian religion, and follow that melkite rite.
The Noukobard (the Longbards) and their kings:
We have already mentioned the Longbards descended from Japheth, son of Noah. Their territory extends in the direction of Magreb, and their settlements are in the north. They have many islands where many different peoples live, very warlike and difficult to submit. They have numerous cities and are under the authority of one king, whose name is Adenkebs (duke). The biggest city, their capital, is Yast (Benevento?). A big river crosses it and divides it in two principal quarters. This river is one of the most important rivers in the world and among the most interesting. Its name is Saibat: it is mentioned by numerous ancient authors who have dealt with this topic.
The Muslims who live in Spain and who are next to the Longbards have taken from them many cities, such as Bari, Tarniou (Taranto?), Chebrameh and other important places. But the Longbards reacted, attacking their invaders and taking back their conquests after long wars. At the moment the above-mentioned cities are controlled by the Longbards.
The Galicians, the Franks, the Slavs, the Longbards and other peoples we have mentioned live in territories next to each other. A great part of them are permanently in hostility against Spain…..whose capital is Cordoba…..The Muslims own in this lands many cities…..in many occasions they had to unite against those barbarous people who descended from, for example, the Galicians, the Borjan, the Franks and many others …
Questions
Which are the usual issues, in Mas‘udi’s description of European peoples?
What is common to all the peoples here described?
Why does he choose to talk only about Slavs, Galicians, Franks, and Longbards?
Bibliography
Ashtor, E., “Che cosa sapevano i geografi Arabi dell’Europa occidentale?”, Rivista Storica Italiana, 81, (1969), pp. 453-79.
Guidi, I., “L’Europa occidentale negli antichi geografi arabi”, Florilegium M. de Vogüe (1909), pp. 263-69.
Lewis, B., The Muslim discovery of Europe (Londra, 1982).
Miquel, A., La géographie humaine du monde musulman jusqu’au milieu du lle siècle, (Parigi, 1967-80), in particular, vol. 2, entitled Géographie arabe et répresentation du monde : la terre et l’étranger, chapters 6 e 7 on eastern and western Europe.